Government Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Government - Research Paper Example Trying Jones in the states court will also attract a maximum sentence unless he pleads guilty whereas the federal court has comparative leniency of federal rules regarding wiretaps and informants which give Jones the possibility of a minimal sentence compared to the former. The fact that he helped with the collecting of evidence to build cases against Smith and Thompson should influence the severity of his sentence in a federal court. Therefore it is my recommendation that once again a federal court is more beneficial because Jones’ actions of helping collect evidence will sway the judges or jury in a federal court. This will go a long way in helping future informants co-operate because they see that there snitching on the others is beneficial to them (Winnfred, 2011). Since no previous records have been found on Smith, the recommendation is to file the case in the Sedgwick County District Court. Smith should be charged with possession and trafficking as a first offender. The prosecutor should consider cutting a deal with Smith which will see the reduction of his sentence in exchange for him informing on his suppliers. ... The federal courts also need to issue a warrant to search all of Thompson’s premises. Secondly the federal courts offer greater harsher penalties for drug related offences that help deter people from future trafficking. According to 1993 statistics from the Department of Justice, the average federal sentence for selling powder cocaine was 79 months; the average for trafficking in crack cocaine was 141 months. Since Thompson seems to be a big time dealer he faces a harsher sentencing. Thompson should also be offered a deal just like Smith by the prosecutor where he faces a less harsh sentence if he is to inform on his suppliers (Harris 2007). The federal courts also offer an avenue for liaising with other courts in other states and other countries unlike the state courts in the event that Thompson’s suppliers are from different states or countries. Since Jones’ testimony is key to prosecuting Thompson, the prosecutor should make it clear to the judge that in no wa y should Jones’ previous convictions influence the decision made by the court in the trial against Thompson. He should still be viewed as a credible witness despite his selfish reasons in informing on Thompson. Looking at the federal law in the United States, there is no full reception statute provided on the level of federal law that spearheaded common law and therefore giving power to federal courts to fabricate precedents that were deemed legal. Federal courts culminate from the federal constitution together with the federal Judicial Acts. On the other hand, people have come to accept the fact that the earlier inhabitants of the United States, by their action of bestowing â€Å"judicial authority† into the highest court of the land

Principles of Insurance Essay Example for Free

Principles of Insurance Essay 1. Principle of Uberrimae fidei (Utmost Good Faith) Principle of Uberrimae fidei (a Latin phrase), or in simple english words, the Principle of Utmost Good Faith, is a very basic and first primary principle of insurance. According to this principle, the insurance contract must be signed by both parties (i.e insurer and insured) in an absolute good faith or belief or trust. The person getting insured must willingly disclose and surrender to the insurer his complete true information regarding the subject matter of insurance. The insurers liability gets void (i.e legally revoked or cancelled) if any facts, about the subject matter of insurance are either omitted, hidden, falsified or presented in a wrong manner by the insured. The principle of Uberrimae fidei applies to all types of insurance contracts. 2. Principle of Insurable Interest The principle of insurable interest states that the person getting insured must have insurable interest in the object of insurance. A person has an insurable interest when the physical existence of the insured object gives him some gain but its non-existence will give him a loss. In simple words, the insured person must suffer some financial loss by the damage of the insured object. For example :- The owner of a taxicab has insurable interest in the taxicab because he is getting income from it. But, if he sells it, he will not have an insurable interest left in that taxicab. From above example, we can conclude that, ownership plays a very crucial role in evaluating insurable interest. Every person has an insurable interest in his own life. A merchant has insurable interest in his business of trading. Similarly, a creditor has insurable interest in his debtor. 3. Principle of Indemnity Indemnity means security, protection and compensation given against damage, loss or injury. According to the principle of indemnity, an insurance contract is signed only for getting protection against unpredicted financial losses arising due to future uncertainties. Insurance contract is not made for making profit else its sole purpose is to give compensation in case of any damage or loss. In an insurance contract, the amount of compensations paid is in proportion to the incurred losses. The amount of compensations is limited to the amount assured or the actual losses, whichever is less. The compensation must not be less or more than the actual damage. Compensation is not paid if the specified loss does not happen due to a particular reason during a specific time period. Thus, insurance is only for giving protection against losses and not for making profit. However, in case of life insurance, the principle of indemnity does not apply because the value of human life cannot be measured in terms of money. 4. Principle of Contribution Principle of Contribution is a corollary of the principle of indemnity. It applies to all contracts of indemnity, if the insured has taken out more than one policy on the same subject matter. According to this principle, the insured can claim the compensation only to the extent of actual loss either from all insurers or from any one insurer. If one insurer pays full compensation then that insurer can claim proportionate claim from the other insurers. For example :- Mr. John insures his property worth $ 100,000 with two insurers AIG Ltd. for $ 90,000 and MetLife Ltd. for $ 60,000. Johns actual property destroyed is worth $ 60,000, then Mr. John can claim the full loss of $ 60,000 either from AIG Ltd. or MetLife Ltd., or he can claim $ 36,000 from AIG Ltd. and $ 24,000 from Metlife Ltd. So, if the insured claims full amount of compensation from one insurer then he cannot claim the same compensation from other insurer and make a profit. Secondly, if one insurance company pays the full c ompensation then it can recover the proportionate contribution from the other insurance company. 5. Principle of Subrogation Subrogation means substituting one creditor for another. Principle of Subrogation is an extension and another corollary of the principle of indemnity. It also applies to all contracts of indemnity. According to the principle of subrogation, when the insured is compensated for the losses due to damage to his insured property, then the ownership right of such property shifts to the insurer. This principle is applicable only when the damaged property has any value after the event causing the damage. The insurer can benefit out of subrogation rights only to the extent of the amount he has paid to the insured as compensation. For example :- Mr. John insures his house for $ 1 million. The house is totally destroyed by the negligence of his neighbour Mr.Tom. The insurance company shall settle the claim of Mr. John for $ 1 million. At the same time, it can file a law suit against Mr.Tom for $ 1.2 million, the market value of the house. If insurance company wins the case and collects $ 1.2 mi llion from Mr. Tom, then the insurance company will retain $ 1 million (which it has already paid to Mr. John) plus other expenses such as court fees. The balance amount, if any will be given to Mr. John, the insured. 6. Principle of Loss Minimization According to the Principle of Loss Minimization, insured must always try his level best to minimize the loss of his insured property, in case of uncertain events like a fire outbreak or blast, etc. The insured must take all possible measures and necessary steps to control and reduce the losses in such a scenario. The insured must not neglect and behave irresponsibly during such events just because the property is insured. Hence it is a responsibility of the insured to protect his insured property and avoid further losses. For example :- Assume, Mr. Johns house is set on fire due to an electric short-circuit. In this tragic scenario, Mr. John must try his level best to stop fire by all possible means, like first calling nearest fire department office, asking neighbours for emergency fire extinguishers, etc. He must not remain inactive and watch his house burning hoping, Why should I worry? Ive insured my house. 7. Principle of Causa Proxima (Nearest Cause) Principle of Causa Proxima (a Latin phrase), or in simple english words, the Principle of Proximate (i.e Nearest) Cause, means when a loss is caused by more than one causes, the proximate or the nearest or the closest cause should be taken into consideration to decide the liability of the insurer. The principle states that to find out whether the insurer is liable for the loss or not, the proximate (closest) and not the remote (farest) must be looked into. For example :- A cargo ships base was punctured due to rats and so sea water entered and cargo was damaged. Here there are two causes for the damage of the cargo ship (i) The cargo ship getting punctured beacuse of rats, and (ii) The sea water entering ship through puncture. The risk of sea water is insured but the first cause is not. The nearest cause of damage is sea water which is insured and therefore the insurer must pay the compensation. However, in case of life insurance, the principle of Causa Proxima does not apply. Whatever may be the reason of death (whether a natural death or an unnatural death) the insurer is liable to pay the amount of insurance.

Book Report on A Tale of Two Cities :: essays papers

Book Report on A Tale of Two Cities My favorite scene in A Tale of Two Cities is one of the last scenes, when Sydney Carton is about to go to the guillotine. It takes place in Paris, near a prison, and many people have gathered to watch french aristocrats be beheaded. The atmosphere is tense and chaotic; Sydney, however, remains calm, even though he is about to be killed. Sydney is holding the hand of a young girl who is given no name other than a "poor little seamstress". Sydney and the seamstress, who are both being wrongfully killed, comfort each other just before they reach the guillotine, and they seem to have an instant romantic connection with each other. I loved this scene because it showed that Sydney Carton had finally found someone who could love him, as he could love them, but it saddened me that he had found her just before their deaths. Another scene I particularly enjoyed was the scene in which a large cask of wine had dropped and broken in the street. Because many people had very little to eat or drink, a large crowd gathered around the dirty puddle and began drinking what they could of the spilled wine. This scene was very descriptive, explaining how the people tried to scoop up the wine in their hands, and how they soaked it up with handkerchiefs from women's heads and squeezed the wine into infants' mouths. Other people licked the stones in the street or sucked on the pieces of wood from the cask. This passage showed how unfortunate many of the people were, without actually saying that they were just poor. Specific words and phrases were used to effectively paint a vivid picture of the scene. One of the most important scenes in this novel was the scene in which Dr. Manette is at the house of the Evremondes', tending to a psychotic young peasant girl. The two Evremonde brothers convince Dr. Manette to come with them, to see someone who they believe needs help. When he arrives at their spacious house, he immediately hears piercing screams, coming from upstairs. He is taken to the room, to see a girl, about 20 years old, who is tied down to a bed, shrieking loudly, and thrashing around. The doctor gives her medication, seemingly to no avail. Meanwhile, the "elder" brother takes him to another patient, the girl's brother, who has a fatal wound in his chest.

PriceWaterhouseCoopers LLP Auditors? Independence Issues & Violations :: essays research papers fc

SEC Concerned with Changes in the Public Accounting Profession The SEC and the former Chairman Arthur Levitt Jr. were extremely concerned that the public accounting firms were violating the auditors independence rules addressed through the Securities Exchange Acts. Auditing firms now had dual citizenship in public companies: (1) they issued opinions on audited financial statements and (2) they participated in various consulting engagements for those same companies. Levitt's solution was to split auditing and consulting. The former Chairman was concerned that the public would lose confidence in the financial markets †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ and the whole system would be jeopardized. Public Accounting Revenues vs. Consulting Revenues by 1999 By 1976, audit fees accounted for approximately 70% of total revenue earned by any accounting firm in general. According to the Public Accounting Report, an Atlanta newsletter, the auditing and assurance services revenues dropped to 30% and tax services business accounted for 19% of the total revenues earned in 1999. Mathematically speaking, this means management consulting services accounted for approximately 51% of the total revenue being earned in 1999 by public accounting firms. Fact: According to The Business Journal's Book of Lists, PwC had $75 million in South Florida billings in 1998 to place third among accounting firms. SEC Auditors’ Independence Rule The independence rules require that auditors refrain from investing in companies that they audit, to ensure objective, truthful reporting and opinion. The rule applies to all auditors, their relatives, spouses, dependents, non-dependents, and, in some cases, associates must disclose all holdings. On the September 25, 2002 issue of BusinessWeekOnline.com, the Accounting Wars Powerful auditor-consultants are the target of Arthur Levitt’s crusade articles defined â€Å"Independence to mean, CPAs cannot audit their own or their partners' work†¦.†¦..clear and honest information is dependent on the CPAs independence†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦an auditor must not have any financial stake in the health, or even survival, of a client company.† There are those in the profession that believe this rule is archaic and does not hold any value in today’s financial world. Barry Melancon, President and CEO of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants stated, â€Å"The SEC has a right to expect the profession to adhere to the rules; however, the profession has a right to expect the regulatory environment to remain modern.† Fact: In 1933, when Congress first required public financial reports, lawmakers debated whether audit fees would taint auditors' independence. PriceWaterhouseCoopers LLP PriceWaterhouseCoopers LLP is a public accounting firm formed through a merger between Coopers & Lybrand LLP and Price Waterhouse LLP, which was consummated on or about July 1, 1998.

Hoffman Discount Drugs, Inc

Case 7-3 (2) The first alternative of giving Data Systems control of product with exchange for any product after year end implies that the revenue is not earned until the final product is determined after year end. In this situation, Excello cannot recognize its revenue until Data System is totally sure the final products that they are actually want to purchase. For example, this year, Data System bought 1000 fax machines, but next year Data System will change it to another 1000 ones and return the previous products at the same time. Meaning to say, Excello still have control on it and same goes with Data System.According to FRS, revenue only can be recognize when and the value is determinable. The second alternatives of transfer ownership with guarantee that Excello would purchase equipment with ten year useful life as the sale implies that Excello would have to recognize a liability to Data System in the amount of the revenue. Meaning to say, first Excello needs to transfer the own ership to Data System for the revenue recognition and at the same time Excello needs to recognize the liability towards Data System. Again, if Excello does not recognize the liability to Data System, so it is an offense.The third alternative allows the return of the merchandise for full credit anytime after year end is conditional sale. Revenue should not be recognized until after the deadline for the full credit. Meaning to say, the value should be determinable in order to recognize it as revenue. If I am the chief financial officer, I would recommend to the Data Equipment System for the second alternatives. Of the three alternatives, the second alternatives has the revenue earned before year end and would be in accordance with GAAP as long as Excello also recognizes their liability to purchase a product from Data Systems.The first offer, it is not ethical if we record the revenue too soon because the earning process has not been completed and the conditional exchange still valid. We cannot record the revenue until the product would be exchange. For the third offer, as we know the revenue cannot recognized in the current year. Means that, the actual amount of revenue do not recorded. It is also unethical if we record the revenue since we know the deadline for the full credit is in the next year. We should strive with the virtue perspective such as honesty, objectivity and trustworthiness in recording the revenue.Honesty requires that the statements should be truthful and recognize revenue using generally accepted accounting principles. Objectivity requires that the company should approach its decision about the proper revenue recognition procedure with fair-mindedness and without partially to one set of stakeholders. Trustworthiness means that the accountants should not violate the investors’ faith that the statements are accurate and reliable. Other than that, to make a decision we should consider the greatest good for the greatest number of stakehold ers.

Acropolis essays

Acropolis essays The acropolis is one of Greeces most monumental pieces that still stand today. Erected as a place of worship, the area towers over the city of Athens as a dedication the God Athena. In the age of the 5th century BC, the city of Greece, had emerged the victor of war. To the victor, comes the spoils, and rewarded they were. They had been rewarded with a greater sense of self-pride, and this opened their eyes to discovering themselves to a greater extent. Greece and its people had grown in confidence, patriotism, religion and culture, and through the method of architecture, wanted to share and show their new take to life. This time of the Greeks gave birth to the creation of the Acropolis complex, which is part of the ancient wonders of the world. In this time of post victory, the Greeks wanted to show the world and remind themselves of their ever-great country. The orders of Doric, and Ionic architecture have been used extensively in this shrine. This is because the style of classical architecture that included ionic and doric designs, is something that the Athenians thought were unique to them. These Doric and Ionic traits included things such as their column styles, pediment pieces, and walls decorations such as friezes or metopes as the Greeks called it. The aim of the Parthenon and the whole acropolis complex, is to be very Greek, very Athenian, with no outside influences, it would truly represent the pride of the country. Such a grand and huge scale project would convey the very values of the Greek people clearly such as religion and of course architecture. Like Gothic architecture to the French, it would leave a signature of Greek style architecture embedded into it, their classical architecture. This way, the acropoli s will always be remembered to be unmistakably of Greek origin. Unfortunately for the Greeks, the Romans also adopted their architecture and may cloud the judgement of the viewer about the origins of the acr...

How Long Is the ACT With Breaks

How Long Is the ACT With Breaks SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips While the test-taking part of the ACT is strictly timed at 2 hours and 55 minutes, the actual time you'll spend in the testing room is longer due to breaks, check in, and other factors. This guide will take a closer look at how long the ACT is with breaks and the amount of time you can plan to spend at your testing center. First, let's consider how long the exam itself is versus how long your whole test-taking experience will be. How Long Is the ACT? Strictly speaking, the ACT is exactly 2 hours and 55 minutes (175 minutes) or 3 hours and 35 minutes (215 minutes) with the optional essay. In terms of the specific amount of time per section: English is 45 minutes Math is 60 minutes Reading is 35 minutes Science is 35 minutes Optional essay is 40 minutes The sections always come in this order, and you can't return to work on a section once time has been called. You also can't flip ahead to other sections. The only exception is for students with approved accommodations, like extended time or Special Testing. The ACT is a fast-paced and time intensive test, and you only get one ten-minute break during the multiple-choice sections. This break always comes after Math and before Reading. If you're taking the essay section, then you'll get a five-minute break after Science and before beginning the essay. This is also when students not taking the ACT with Writing will leave the testing room. To give a more realistic sense of how long the ACT will take, including breaks and other factors, let's look at the entire ACT test-taking experience. The test will take all morning. How Long Is the ACT Test-Taking Experience? How long is the ACT with breaks? Including your 10 minute break, the ACT without Writing will take a total of 3 hours and 5 minutes from the time you start testing. With Writing, the ACT will clock in at 3 hours and 50 minutes, with the following schedule. (For simplicity's sake, I used a start time of 8:30 AM. Depending on how much time it takes for set up, students begin testing somewhere between 8:30 and 9:00, so you can shift this schedule forward accordingly.) Section Total Time Start Time End Time English 45 min 8:30 9:15 Math 60 min 9:15 10:15 Break 10 min 10:15 10:25 Reading 35 min 10:25 :00 Science 35 min :00 :35 Break (some students leave) 5 min :35 :40 Optional essay 40 min :40 12:20 Total 230 min For the most part, this schedule is standard for all students in all test centers across the country and world (give or take a minute to switch between sections). At least, it's supposed to be. It's possible there could be some variations if the proctor isn't strict about break times, or if there's some disruption like students taking too long to return to their testing room or someone getting dismissed for cell phone use. A few students have reported that their proctors skipped over their breaks completely, which both messes with your pacing and is totally unfair. If you find this happening to you, make sure to speak up, as you're entitled to take a ten-minute break after the Math section. The only other exception, as mentioned above, is for students who get accommodations for extended time on the ACT or extended or additional breaks. Otherwise, testing conditions should remain the same for all students. What other procedures come before you start taking the ACT? What Are the ACT Test Day Procedures? You should plan to arrive at your test center by 7:45 AM at the latest. Students should be checked in by 8:00, and latecomers won't be admitted. Your test will be on a Saturday morning at your chosen test center, unless you were approved for an alternative testing date due to religious reasons. Test centers vary in size, and larger ones might be holding other exams that same morning. It might take some time to get through the check-in line, hang up your belongings, high five your friend good luck, and find your room and assigned seat. I would advise getting there before 7:45, around about 7:30, to be safe. Make sure to save your admission ticket even after you're admitted, as you'll need it to fill out personal information on the test. Once all students are checked in, the proctor will read directions and hand out the tests. You'll spend some time filling out your personal information. All of this will take 30 minutes to an hour, so you'll actually begin taking the ACT between 8:30 and 9:00. In rare cases, students will be asked to take an unscored fifth section. This may be multiple choice or student-produced responses, and it's used to test out future material. In the past, this sections has been just 16 minutes. Most students will be finished and dismissed from the testing room between :30AM and 1:00PM, depending on when your exam starts and if you take the essay. The only exception is students with extended time, who will either stay until around 2:30 to 3:00 or take the ACT at their school over multiple days. Considering the ACT is an intense marathon of a test, you should make sure to get there early and take advantage of break times. Don't add any extra stress to your morning by running late or getting distracted by being hungry or thirsty. Don't go hungry on test day. How Can You Be Well-Prepared on ACT Test Day? Do you ever have a morning where it feels like everything's going wrong and you're constantly running 15 minutes late? You do not want your ACT test day to be one of those mornings. To make sure everything goes as smoothly as possible, you should pack your bag with everything you need the night before, like Number 2 pencils, your calculator, snacks, and a drink. Try to go to bed early and eat a nutritious snack in the morning (definitely want to avoid a mid-test sugar crash). Take advantage of your 10-minute break after the long Math section to get up and move around. Re-energize with a snack and drink of water. Clear your mind, and get ready to shift from Math to Reading. Just moving around and looking off into the distance will help refresh you before returning to tackle the Reading section. I would suggest returning to your seat about a minute before you start up again to settle in and get back into test-taking mode. Again, if your proctor isn't giving you a break (rare), speak up and get your time. You should have your ten minutes before Reading and five minutes before the essay. Just by being aware of the test day schedule and preparing with official ACT questions, you shouldn't have too many surprises on test day. Let's briefly review the most important pieces of information about the length of the ACT. To Sum Up... The ACT is about three hours (or three and a half with Writing), but the entire test-taking experience will be around four and a half (or five) hours. Upon arrival at the test center, you'll spend half an hour to an hour getting checked in, seated, and filling out information on your test. You get one ten-minute break after Reading and one five-minute break after the multiple choice sections. Arrive by or before 7:45AM and plan to be picked up or drive home at between :30AM and 1:00PM, depending on when your exam begins and if you take the optional essay. Prepare the night before, get there early, and take advantage of your break times. Before you know it, you'll be all finished and can enjoy the rest of your weekend! What's Next? For more on timing and what to expect on test day, check out our expert guide answering all your questions on the length of the ACT. Students and test experts agree that the ACT has been getting harder and more difficult to finish over the past few years. What does the ACT have to say about this? Has it been getting even more challenging? Read all about changes in the ACT here. Are youwondering when you should sign up to take the ACT for the first time? This guide describes the most important considerations to help you choose the best test date for you. Disappointed with your ACT scores? Want to improve your ACT score by 4+ points? Download our free guide to the top 5 strategies you need in your prep to improve your ACT score dramatically. Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Rebecca Safier About the Author Rebecca graduated with her Master's in Adolescent Counseling from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She has years of teaching and college counseling experience and is passionate about helping students achieve their goals and improve their well-being. She graduated magna cum laude from Tufts University and scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT. 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The New Enhanced ACT Writing Test (2016) Complete Guide

The New Enhanced ACT Writing Test (2016) Complete Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Did you know that the ACT Writing Test changed dramatically in Fall 2015? You might not, because people haven't talked about it much, but it changed the ACT and possibly standardized testing in general. It's scored based on all of the old ACT's criteria, but also on a number of new concepts. We've written the most comprehensive guide available on the new ACT Writing section. Keep reading to find out how you can prepare for and ace this new test. Because there's a lot to cover, we've divided this article into 3 sections, each exploring a major change in the new ACT Writing assignment: Part 1: Expanded Prompts Part 2: More Open-Ended Assignment Part 3: Redesigned Scoring Criteria Before we dive into this, it's useful to understand why they're changing the ACT Essay section, because this will help you write a better essay. Why Is the Writing Section Changing? One of colleges' biggest complaints about high school graduates is that their writing isn't academic or complex enough. Because the ACT is trying to position itself not only as a college entrance exam but also as a state-mandated graduation benchmark, it's always trying to stay relevant to the modern education system, and the Enhanced ACT Writing Test is a big part of that. ACT, Inc. gives a number of reasons for the changes to the essay assignment. The simplest explanation they give is that it "will allow students to more fully demonstrate their analytical writing ability." Edward R. Colby, a spokesman for ACT, has also commented on the increased complexity of the Enhanced ACT Writing assignment: â€Å"It won’t be ‘this side or that side,’† Mr. Colby said. â€Å"The question will ask students for multiple perspectives and support. It will be a more-complex prompt than what we’re delivering now.† But the real motivations behind the redesigned ACT Writing test are related to broader changes in education. Until recently, each state decided what to teach its students, and many students were graduating from high school totally unprepared for college. So in 2010, the National Governors Association released the Common Core standards in English and math. Forty-four of the fifty U.S. states and the District of Columbia have adopted the Common Core State Standards Initiative. The Grades 11-12 Common Core Writing Standards include references to three very specific types of writing: "Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence." "Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content." "Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences." As you'll be able to see in the scoring criteria later in the article, these three modes of writing correlate directly to the newly-added columns of writing modes in the ACT's new Writing Competencies Model. Will the Enhanced ACT Writing Test Matter More to Colleges? We don't yet know whether these changes will make the writing test more relevant to colleges, most of which don't require applicants to submit writing scores. But some of those colleges are big, and over 50 percent of high-school seniors are still writing essays when they take the ACT. Ultimately, colleges won't change their policies until the 2015 new ACT Writing test has been administered a few times, to see what the scores end up reflecting. For example, the old ACT essay is generally considered to be a somewhat skewed measure of students' writing ability. It can't test, as the Enhanced ACT Essay claims to, "insight/deeper understanding through thoughtful consideration." The closest it comes to testing "insight" is whether the examples logically support the point being made. It appears, though, that the new version is trying to capture more of the depth and meaning of an essay than has been attempted by standardized tests so far. PART I: Expanded Prompts While ACT, Inc. has only released a few sample prompts for the Enhanced ACT Writing section, we can learn a lot from them. The prompts are longer, more complicated, and cover a broader range of topics than the old prompts did. The topic of the old prompts mostly covered high school and education. They gave a paragraph on the topic and asked only that you "take a position" and support it. Old Prompt Style and Topic Here's the old style of prompt (this is all of it): Rather than concentrating on doing one thing at a time, high school students often divide their attention among several activities, such as watching television and using the computer while doing homework. Some educators believe multitasking is a bad practice when doing homework because they think dividing attention between multiple tasks negatively affects the quality of students' work. Other educators do not believe multitasking is a bad practice when doing homework because they think students accomplish more during their limited free time as a result of multitasking. In your opinion, is it too distracting for high school students to divide their attention among several activities when they are doing homework? In your essay, take a position on this question. You may write about either one of the two points of view given, or you may present a different point of view on this question. Use specific reasons and examples to support your position. As we discuss in our blog post about current ACT Writing prompts, and as is reflected in the prompt above, the old ACT prompts were all about topics related to high schoolers and high school education. And as you'll read next, that is no longer true with the introduction of the Enhanced ACT Writing Test. New Prompt Style and Topics The redesigned ACT Writing prompts are much more complex. They start with a passage about the same length as the old one, shown below. Notice that the prompt does not ask a specific question about the information. The prompt topic below, about the mechanization of the workforce, is a broad and often controversial issue in modern society. As you can see, it has nothing to do with high school or education. Note: in the prompt below, released by the ACT, the emphasis (in italics) of certain key phrases has been added by the editor. Intelligent Machines Many of the goods and services we depend on daily are now supplied by intelligent, automated machines rather than human beings. Robots build cars and other goods on assembly lines, where once there were human workers. Many of our phone conversations are now conducted not with people but with sophisticated technologies. We can now buy goods at a variety of stores without the help of a human cashier. Automation is generally seen as a sign of progress, but what is lost when we replace humans with machines? Given the accelerating variety and prevalence of intelligent machines, it is worth examining the implications and meaning of their presence in our lives. Since this is one of five prompts the ACT has released, we don't know anything about the range of topics they'll be covering. But we can draw some basic conclusions about their scope and structure. The Anatomy of the New ACT Writing Prompt Let's break down the new prompt, sentence by sentence. Sentence 1: General statement about "intelligent, automated machines" providing "goods and services" Sentences 2-4: Three specific examples of robots replacing human workers Sentence 5: Core question, "what is lost when we replace humans with machines?" Sentence 6: Instruction, "[Examine] the implications and meaning of [intelligent machines'] presence in our lives." As you can see, the instruction in Sentence 6 is phrased somewhat abstractly- it just says the topic is "worth examining." But since this is an essay prompt, we know that that sentence is actually telling us what it wants us to do. But that's not all! Added Perspectives, a.k.a. Points of View In addition to the large text prompt above, the Enhanced ACT Writing test gives you three different perspectives on the issue in thepassage: Perspective One What we lose with the replacement of people by machines is some part of our own humanity. Even our mundane daily encounters no longer require from us basic courtesy, respect, and tolerance for other people. Perspective Two Machines are good at low-skill, repetitive jobs, and at high-speed, extremely precise jobs. In both cases they work better than humans. This efficiency leads to a more prosperous and progressive world for everyone. Perspective Three Intelligent machines challenge our long-standing ideas about what humans are or can be. This is good because it pushes both humans and machines toward new, unimagined possibilities. Let's simplify the three perspectives: 1) Mechanization is related to and a symbol of perceived modern cultural disintegration (It's bad). 2) The efficiency of mechanization can only benefit humanity (It's good because it's efficient). 3) Mechanization is good because it tests our ideas about humanity (It's good because it challenges us). There's no way to know what the perspectives will be on future redesigned ACT Writing prompts, but it's safe to say that at least one will be positive and at least one will be negative. We'll explain what you're supposed to do with these perspectives below. PART II: More Open-Ended Assignment After the ACT presents you with this heap of information, it finally gives some specific instructions on what it wants you to do. Revised Expanded Instructions and Hints Here's the new 2015 ACT Writing Essay Task. It's safe to assume that this will be the same in every subsequent ACT Writing test. Essay Task Write a unified, coherent essay about the increasing presence of intelligent machines. In your essay, be sure to: clearly state your own perspective on the issue and analyze the relationship between your perspective and at least one other perspective develop and support your ideas with reasoning and examples organize your ideas clearly and logically communicate your ideas effectively in standard written English Your perspective may be in full agreement with any of the others, in partial agreement, or wholly different. There are a few new important things to note here: you now must not only choose a perspective on the issue (which, to make your life easier, should be one of those given), but also must discuss the relationship between the perspective you choose and at least one of the others. This is significantly more challenging than the amount of analysis you were expected to do in the old ACT Writing test. We'll get more deeply into this in a moment. New: Focus on Planning But wait! There's more! On a second page, the Enhanced ACT Writing Test gives space for planning your essay, and reminders of some things to consider including: Planning Your Essay Your work on these prewriting pages will not be scored. Use the space below and on the back cover to generate ideas and plan your essay. You may wish to consider the following as you think critically about the task: Strengths and weaknesses of the three given perspectives What insights do they offer, and what do they fail to consider? Why might they be persuasive to others, or why might they fail to persuade? Your own knowledge experience and values What is your perspective on this issue, and what are its strengths and weaknesses? How will you support your perspective in your essay? You can see, given the instructions, that there are a lot of elements to consider. It's a lot more open-ended than the old ACT essay. How Has the Assignment Changed? In the old ACT essay, you had 2 jobs: take a position on the topic (and defend it), and address (and disqualify) the opposing perspective to your own. In the Enhanced ACT Writing, you have still have 2 analytical jobs, but the specifics of the jobs have changed. You still have to take a position on the topic (and defend it), but,and this is the most novel part, you also have to discuss the relationship between the perspectives. The ACT gives you space in the essay booklet that's specifically for planning (to emphasize that planning is CRUCIAL to the assignment) and contains ideas for brainstorming support. Unfortunately, the ideas they give are a bit obtuse. Let's translate them into simpler wording: "What insights do they offer, and what do they fail to consider?" = how is each perspective right and wrong? "Why might they be persuasive to others, and how might they fail to persuade?" = why would people agree or disagree with each perspective? "What is your perspective on the issue, and what are its strengths and weaknesses?" = think about the perspective you choose and make sure it's easy to support (which, hopefully, you'd do automatically) "How will you support your perspective?" = the same thing you had to do on the old ACT essay: think of reasons and examples that show the validity of your argument PART III: Redesigned Scoring Criteria The old ACT Writing score criteria were in paragraph form, by score, and not broken down into categories. Let's take a look. The Old ACT Essay Scoring Criteria Score = 6 Essays within this score range demonstrate effective skill in responding to the task. The essay shows a clear understanding of the task. The essay takes a position on the issue and may offer a critical context for discussion. The essay addresses complexity by examining different perspectives on the issue, or by evaluating the implications and/or complications of the issue, or by fully responding to counterarguments to the writer's position. Development of ideas is ample, specific, and logical. Most ideas are fully elaborated. A clear focus on the specific issue in the prompt is maintained. The organization of the essay is clear: the organization may be somewhat predictable or it may grow from the writer's purpose. Ideas are logically sequenced. Most transitions reflect the writer's logic and are usually integrated into the essay. The introduction and conclusion are effective, clear, and well developed. The essay shows a good command of language. Sentences are varied and word choice is varied and precise. There are few, if any, errors to distract the reader. By contrast, the ACT's new "writing competencies model" looks really complicated, but much of it is the same as the old ACT essay requirements. The major categories are still the same- "generate ideas" is the same as "takes a position and supports it" and so on. Let's look at each section; the items in blue boxes are the newly-introduced elements. However, it's not 100% accurate to say that all of these are newly introduced. After the new criteria, we break down what's actually new and how it fits into the simpler, older scoring model. The Redesigned 2015 ACT Essay Scoring Criteria Generate Ideas Develop Ideas Sustain Ideas Organize Ideas Communicate Ideas There's a lot to digest here, so we've created a condensed version of the old ACT scoring criteria on the left and the new additions from the blue boxes above on the right. Old ACT Writing, Score of 6 New ACT Skill Name Enhanced ACT Writing adds... The essay takes a position on the issue and may offer a critical context for discussion. The essay addresses complexity by examining different perspectives on the issue, or by evaluating the implications and/or complications of the issue, or by fully responding to counterarguments to the writer's position. Generate ideas (Judgment, Analysis, Narration and Reflection) multiple perspectives articulate insight/depth of understanding situated perspectives (context) Development of ideas is ample, specific, and logical. Most ideas are fully elaborated. Develop Ideas (Develop a Position, Support an Explanation, Give an Account) appeals to emotion/feeling identify and explore relevant underlying assumptions, ideas, or values arrive at insight/deeper understanding through thoughtful consideration A clear focus on the specific issue in the prompt is maintained. Sustain ideas (Focus) Nothing New The organization of the essay is clear: the organization may be somewhat predictable or it may grow from the writer's purpose. Ideas are logically sequenced. Most transitions reflect the writer's logic and are usually integrated into the essay. The introduction and conclusion are effective, clear, and well developed. Organize ideas (Organization) Sequence narrative elements effectively The essay shows a good command of language. Sentences are varied and word choice is varied and precise. There are few, if any, errors to distract the reader. Communicate Ideas (Language Use) Use appropriate voice and tone Use narrative techniques Use descriptive vocabulary Why Are There 3 Columns of Criteria? The old ACT was entirely focused, in its instructions and scoring, on the Persuasive/Argumentative mode of writing. You were supposed to analyze the topic thoughtfully, which is part of the Analytical Expository mode, and you were encouraged to use examples, which requires the Reflective Narrative mode. But only the goals of the Persuasive/Argumentative mode were meant to count toward your score. Like many recent education changes, redesigned ACT Writing scoring is purposely in line with the Common Core state standards, which are meant to improve the U.S.'s competency in relation to the education systems of other countries, and to make sure all students graduate college-ready. These standards are considered more difficult than previous public school standards, and the changes are somewhat controversial in some circles. In any case, the ACT is now including this more complex (and accurate) view of writing competency in their new essay format. Let's get more in depth with these two new modes of writing. Analytical Expository Mode You've probably written plenty of expository papers for high school, but the redesigned ACT Writingis focusing more on the Analytical part of the description. While the old ACT essay (and the SAT essay) scored only the persuasive elements of the essay- whether your arguments logically supported your point- the new scoring system is meant to reward INSIGHT. This is actually a huge revelation for standardized testing, and is not something that can be scored by a computer. Reflective Narrative Mode Really, this could just be called Storytelling. It's supposed to cover any specific examples or personal stories you choose to use to support your thesis. It's the least important of the three modes, both in the ACT essay and in academic writing. We don't need to worry much about these criteria- just give your examples clearly, and try to include all the relevant details. In scoring essays at PrepScholar, we don't find that this is a common problem for students. Which ACT Writing Test Should I Take? Most people will probably tell you that the old ACT Writing test was easier than the Enhanced ACT Writing test, and that you should definitely choose it over the new test if you have a choice. But it's a bit more complicated than that: it may be more accurate to say that the old test is more formulaic, scoring only for logical structure rather than actual insight or ability to analyze multiple viewpoints. If you're the kind of student who writes great essays for English class, or who loves writing well, the redesigned ACT Writing test may be for you. It will take into account analytical skills that aren't part of the old essay, so if you write a really insightful essay for the old test, you won't be rewarded for it. On the redesigned ACT Writing test, you will. Personally, I've always been the kind of person who hates writing to a formula and who wants all my writing to be interesting and insightful. For that reason, I'd choose the new test. How Can I Study for the New ACT Writing Test? Well, since we only have a few prompts, we don't know yet what specific topics you should read up on. But we do know you'll be asked to write about multiple perspectives on common cultural debates, such as nuclear power or government-subsidized health insurance. So you can google "debate topics," choose a few that are appropriate for high schoolers, and prepare your own prompts: just find three different perspectives on the issue, and then use them to perform the Essay Task above. The ACT may be releasing more information before the redesigned Writing test is administered, so stay tuned to the PrepScholar blog to keep yourself in the know! What's Next? If you're researching this topic, you're probably looking to score a pretty high score. Read our guide to how to get a perfect ACT score, written by our 36 ACT scorer. Also, read our guide on how to get a perfect 12 on the ACT Writing section. What's a good ACT score for you? Find out how to get your ACT target score, step by step. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes your prep program to your strengths and weaknesses. We also have expert instructors who can grade every one of your practice ACT essays, giving feedback on how to improve your score. Check out our 5-day free trial:

Managing Decision Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing Decision Making - Essay Example Hence we bring a wide range of inputs to the process of decision making. Two features of our deliberations are conflict and conciliation. Conflict is inevitable in any group interaction, but we make sure that it is constructive and instructive. What we strive as a group is to talk, deliberate, analyse and eventually concur on our decisions. The objective of our project was to compile a report on End User Development (EUD), which is a buzzing concept in the world of Information Technology. Numerous decisions were taken at various stages of the project. This reflection will touch upon salient features of our group decision making process. My views are informed by theory and practical knowledge that I learnt through various key texts during the course. Decision Style Effects on Group Decision Making Scholar Efraim Turban denotes a list of guiding principles that comprise a decision modelling. These are â€Å"1.Will analytics solve the problem? 2.Can an existing solution be leveraged? 3 . Is a tool needed?† (Turban, p.39) Although these guiding questions were offered in the context of an Information Technology company, Hewlett- Packard, their essence can be extrapolated to any situation. So our group adopted this framework in our decision making process. But this framework does not work in isolation from our individual personalities. For example, Aleksandar is someone who uses a Behavioral decision making style which comes naturally to him. Rocco and Kuir’s approach to decisions tend to fall under the Directive type. I think of my style as Analytical with due modesty. Hence, conflict is an expected feature of our discussions. Actually, this diversity of styles creates a vibrant atmosphere during the discussions. Though we have set individual styles, our group members are also good listeners. Aleksandar, Rocco and Kuir lend their ear to what I have to say and correct me if I’ve made a logical or factual error. So what is evident in our group dyna mics is a constant flux of inputs and outputs. Just as each member gives his inputs, each in turn receives an evaluation of their views through others’ responses. I would claim on behalf of my group that it is an enjoyable process overall. Personality Type Effects on Group Decision Making Analytical individuals like me enjoy problem solving and enjoy a good challenge. Fair to say, the challenging nature of our project actually served as a motivation for me. People of my type enjoy data crunching and rigorous analysis. I am happy to state that the project in question provided me satisfaction on both counts. I also enjoy written communication, which is why I took to the task of compiling this report with enthusiasm. My strengths suitably complement what Aleksandar, Rocco and Kuir have to offer. Aleksandar falls under the Behavioural type, which means he is a good team player and very sociable. He negotiates differences through skilful and polite persuasion than aggression. In f act, Aleksandar is the great pacifier in our meetings. We love him for it. Rocco and Kuir are the Directive types. They are very focussed on getting things done and can be a little aggressive at times. But they are valuable for the group for the technical knowledge they bring to the project. To give an anatomical analogy, Rocco and Kuir would form the muscles and bones whereas Aleksandar would be the heart of our group. I myself, again with due modesty, would be its brain. Team Development and its effect on Group Decision

Early Childhood Education Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words - 1

Early Childhood Education Management - Essay Example This essay stresses that it is necessary to mention that the information discussed above is really useful for nursery managers if they want to be professionals and to be aware of all aspects of the work, including managing the establishment. Nursery manager has to know everything about early childhood education and development, not only managing issues. It is necessary to say that real professional is broad-minded. The main purpose of the present case study is to find the possible solutions to the problem of Helen. She is known for her dictative manner of behaviour, though she is a great lover of children. In order to find the ways out, we shall try to apply theoretical knowledge from the area of management and leadership. This case study will be a descriptive one, for first of all we will describe the situation, and then look for possible means of changing it, resulting from the theoretical material which we will be able to find. This report declares that cooperation with children has many forms. Nursery manager should realize that it demands good knowledge, development of skills and creativity. The daily experience will be typified by life experience and sudden teachable moments. There is no place for strict treatment and constant subject learning. Nursery teacher plays many roles such as observer, evaluator, elaborator, planner, and modeller. The choice of the role depends on the situation. It was mentioned that nursery educator must work with children â€Å"based on their knowledge of the individual child and their knowledge of how children generally develop†.

Discuss the role of victims in international criminal trials and Essay

Discuss the role of victims in international criminal trials and suggest possible areas of reform - Essay Example It is the fourth stage that concerns helping and rehabilitating victims which is the main subject of this article. In addition the need for providing a voice to the victims in the trial process itself is examined. In the past victims have not been of great interest to the international community, and some writers have labeled concern for victims the 'missing link' of international criminal justice3. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY); the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR); and the permanent International Criminal Court (ICC) have a common mandate: "to contribute to the consolidation and enhancement of international justice and the international rule of law by bringing to account, in an international forum, those persons bearing the greatest responsibility for the most egregious violations of international humanitarian law."4 In the past thirteen years a number of cases have been tried and the use and effectiveness of such courts is evident as they helped establish peace and justice in Rwanda and the Balkans. The need for establishment of international criminal tribunals and courts was felt because the persons committing crimes that may be prosecuted under four clusters of offences i.e. breaches of the 1949 Geneva Conventions5, violations of the laws or customs of war6 (which together are generally known as "war crimes"), genocide7, and crimes against humanity8 are often beyond the reach of unwilling or unable national judicial systems. Neither is it possible to establish an atmosphere, within the country, for a fair trial to be conducted. 3.0 The Role of the Courts International criminal law has a dual purpose, one to truth and history and second to justice through the trial process. This duality has been recognised and confirmed by the ICTY9. A similar traditional criminal trial model approach was adopted by the ICTR and the ICC with the aim to convict, punish and deter. On the other hand the post-apartheid South Africa trails adopted an amnesty based truth and reconciliation model to reconcile, heal and to set the record straight. Neither approach in itself appears to be fully correct; the role of truth in the first and justice in the second has been overlooked10. The need is to move toward a judicious combination of the two approaches and this indeed is happening when we consider the recent history of trials where the courts have asserted their role as makers of history11 while the defendants have challenged the very legitimacy of the court12. International criminal justice is fast becoming a process of securing convictions of international criminals. The new criminal procedure and jurisprudence that is emerging needs to be considered in the light of what is the actual demand made from it, the rationale behind the trial, and should not limit itself to an adjustment between the classical criminal and civil law processes. While in the traditional criminal trial procedures the need is to find undisputable proof of guilt and punish the criminal, international criminal courts have further considerations like the e ffect the decision may have on the peace and stability of the nation to which the under-trial belongs and also, importantly, the victims and affected communities of the crimes purportedly committed. Professor Mark Drumbl13

Housekeeping Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Housekeeping - Essay Example ablishments and organizations where there is a domestic steward; the housekeeper ought to consider themselves as the immediate representatives of their mistress. Good housekeeping entail a number of practical measures based on the common sense of the enterprise to undertake in order to improve their productivity, obtain savings in their costs as well as reducing the environmental impact of their operations. Good housekeeping needs to relate to voluntary actions that are aimed at rationalizing the utilization of raw materials, water and energy inputs. It also aims at reduction of the toxicity and volume of the wastes and the emission of harmful products, reusing and recycling maximum amounts of primary inputs and packaging of materials as well as the enhancing of conditions of working and occupational safety in the household. The paper analyses on the importance of the housekeeping manual and it is significant in enhancing the employees’ performance as well as the housekeeping department. It also describes Avenue hotel in Copenhagen one of the biggest hotels in Denmark. It seeks to provide areas of the manual delivery system needing improvement to enhance the hotel in achieving its target goals. Housekeeping entails the use and implementation of the housekeeping manual to enhance the effectiveness in the hotels operations. The major objective of housekeeping manual is enabled enterprises identify simple and practical, common sense measures of appropriate housekeeping that ought to be undertaken in reduction of the cost involved in the production as well as enhance the overall productivity and mitigate environmental impact. Good housekeeping practices ought to relate to a number of measures dealing with the prevention of the loss of materials, minimization of waste in the enterprise, conservation of energy as well as improving the operational and organizational procedures. The implementation of the housekeeping manual ensures that the practices are relatively easy

Research the food truck business Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The food truck business - Research Paper Example Depending on the size of a truck, an average number of six employees is necessary for carrying out the routine activities for a food truck business (Laban, 2013). The employees should include the truck driver, two chefs, two servers and the cashier. The first daily activity is to purchase necessary requirements for making the food that it will serve its customers. It is crucial for the truck business to stick to one supplier. The two chefs prepare the food and serve to maintain sanitation within the truck by washing the utensils and other equipment. The two servers respond to the customer’s request by serving the food to them. The cashier receives and records the money from the client. Operating a food truck business require full compliance with the established law governing the operation of such business. An individual needs to acquire a business license from relevant authorities to operate a food truck business (Rodrigo, 2014). Location license is also a requirement. In addition, the business must obtain a health permit and an operation manual to run the business. Laban, C. (2013, May 9). Operators talk about food-truck business. McClatchy - Tribune Business News. Washington, United States. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/business/docview/1349352395/fulltext/9238C351CBC44C03PQ/6?accountid=45049 Rodrigo, J. (2014, September 20). Business owner branches out to include food truck. McClatchy - Tribune Business News. Washington, United States. Retrieved from

Housekeeping Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Housekeeping - Essay Example ablishments and organizations where there is a domestic steward; the housekeeper ought to consider themselves as the immediate representatives of their mistress. Good housekeeping entail a number of practical measures based on the common sense of the enterprise to undertake in order to improve their productivity, obtain savings in their costs as well as reducing the environmental impact of their operations. Good housekeeping needs to relate to voluntary actions that are aimed at rationalizing the utilization of raw materials, water and energy inputs. It also aims at reduction of the toxicity and volume of the wastes and the emission of harmful products, reusing and recycling maximum amounts of primary inputs and packaging of materials as well as the enhancing of conditions of working and occupational safety in the household. The paper analyses on the importance of the housekeeping manual and it is significant in enhancing the employees’ performance as well as the housekeeping department. It also describes Avenue hotel in Copenhagen one of the biggest hotels in Denmark. It seeks to provide areas of the manual delivery system needing improvement to enhance the hotel in achieving its target goals. Housekeeping entails the use and implementation of the housekeeping manual to enhance the effectiveness in the hotels operations. The major objective of housekeeping manual is enabled enterprises identify simple and practical, common sense measures of appropriate housekeeping that ought to be undertaken in reduction of the cost involved in the production as well as enhance the overall productivity and mitigate environmental impact. Good housekeeping practices ought to relate to a number of measures dealing with the prevention of the loss of materials, minimization of waste in the enterprise, conservation of energy as well as improving the operational and organizational procedures. The implementation of the housekeeping manual ensures that the practices are relatively easy

International business and International Trade Coursework

International business and International Trade - Coursework Example The competition is increased globally since companies look for the best suppliers offering high quality at low prices, search for international human talents and acquire the best possible know-how in order to satisfy better their customers' needs. As a result of the above mentioned the cooperation of countries is expanded. The countries understood that may gain reciprocal advantages, they can react to problems better when they work together with other countries rather than trying to solve the problems alone. Lastly, the countries with globalization main deal with issues e.g. environmental issues that are not in their territory. 2. After summarizing the positive and negative aspects of offshoring, state whether you support or are against offshoring and why. Include any experiences you or someone you know has had in which offshoring is affected. "improvements in technology will have as a result the need for fewer employees to accomplish the same task/work, particularly for the less ski lled jobs that are easiest to offshore". (Hackos, 2004). The technology improvements will help companies to reduce their costs and thus reduce prices or invest the saved money in Research and Development. As a result, companies will grow and therefore will raise their employment rate and at the same time, they will increase highly paid positions in their countries. Another positive aspect of offshoring is that the poverty level in poor countries has been decreased. This allowed them to decrease their unemployment rate and consequently, people have more income to dispose of thus imports from rich countries have been increased i.e. the decrease of the poverty level in poor countries is beneficial both for the poor and the rich countries. The negative aspects are the following: the product prices are not reduced although the production costs are diminished. Jobs are replaced and working conditions are deteriorated. Jobs in poor countries are low paid. When a country asks for more then the Multinational Companies move to somewhere else, somewhere cheaper. Countries that have benefited from offshoring are China and India whereas the rest of the other underdeveloped countries remain in poverty. According to Joseph Stiglitz, during the last yeast of the last century, the number of people living in poverty conditions has increased by 100 million.(Daniels, Radebaugh & Sullivan, 2007) A personal experience that I have is a person I know in Greece. He had been working for the local cotton industry which was blooming in the country fifteen years ago producing excellent cotton.  

Strategy and Planning Essay Essay Example for Free

Strategy and Planning Essay Essay The maximum exploitation of our resources is the key to advantage over the competitors. Marketing is one of the main areas in which a well versed strategic plan can make the organisation to attract customers here the way in which we describe the organizations motives, goals and the dedication to the customers reflect in our adverts. So, cleverly placing the right factors in the right place is a challenge in the strategic planning decision making. In this ever changing business environment the only way of survival of an organisation depends upon the decisions it makes. Thus strategic planning is the key factor to success. In this research we will briefly discuss about the tools of strategy and the outcomes of implementing these tools in an organisation. We will discuss about SWOT analysis, PESTEL analysis and Potters Five Force. 3 (b). SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis is one of the tools in strategic planning and decision making. This tool helps us to judge the organizations position in the business environment. SWOT stands for Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats. Strength The organizations factors which are most influential with respect to customers, market share, and brand value and so on. The strength of an organisation maybe its good will, an excellent customer relationship management and many other sensitive factors which lies on the organizations side. Weakness The things which are an advantage of the competitor and a disadvantage to our organisation. The weakness factor may depend upon our organizations own business policies and or work ethics which binds us to a corner, the competitors takes advantage of this issue and exploit the opportunity but fine tuning our strategy and decision making will bring in a drastic change. Opportunities The chance in which all the things fall in line for our organisation to exploit and to make a profit of it is the definition for opportunities. Opportunities can occur due to a change in trend of customers, brand switching an so on. It is wise for an organisation to make use of such opportunities. Threats The main and most important factor is the threats from rivals and competitors. If an organisation fails to with stand the threats from the competitors then it will surely end up in bankruptcy, the competition may come up with innovative ways of marketing and attracting customers so it is our bounded duty to over come the competitors by creating innovative ways of marketing through strategic planning. Example for SWOT analysis Soft drink giant: Coca-Cola Strengths One of the most successful organisations of all time. The brand value of Coca-Cola is worth more than $68 million in 2009. the company manages its products over 200 countries with over 700 products which is a gigantic goal to achieve but maintaining it as the leader of its kind is still another battle. People tend to be faithful to the Coca-Cola brand because of its one main product the cola drink. So a wide variety of different products from the company with the same brand name tends to market the products for itself. (www. interbrand. com) Weaknesses The Coca-ColaCompany products are beverages so the main weakness for them is that they have this lobby of beverage segment and this is might be their weakness because in the long run they might hit the ground if any other company produces a better beverage. And nowadays people tend to make choices more often than in the past so it is a vulnerable area to be looked upon! Opportunities People are concerned about their health now more than ever so the introduction of Coke Zero a new product from the Coca-ColaCompany is catching up a considerable amount of market share because of its new distinct taste without added sugar in some countries but basically its a new drink with zero calories, the company claims!. The company is exploiting the current trend of health criteria. Threats The main competitor of Coca-ColaCompany is the PepsiCo Inc, the Pepsi Cola Company introduces new products in response to the Coca-ColaCompany. The Coca-ColaCompany is trying very hard to cope up with the situation. During 998 the PepsiCo Inc managed to out smart the company. So without the proper strategic planning PepsiCo will soon go beyond the Cokes victory 3(c). The PESTLE Analysis The most important tool of strategic planning is the PESTEL analysis. The PESTEL analysis is a tool which helps us to judge our position in the market with respect to the macro environment. PESTLE stands for P Political Forces, E Economical Forces, S -Social Forces, T -Technological Forces, L Legislative Forces and E Environmental Forces. These forces influence the overall performance, market value, finance and customer relationship of the company. We will briefly discuss about the PESTEL forces one by one by implementing into an organisation. Example : Integrated Electronics (INTEL) Semiconductors. The Intel Semiconductors are the producers of the famous Intel microchips which literally runs the computer industry but with some rivals such as AMD Inc (Advanced Micro devices). Here we will apply the PESTEL analysis to know the factors that are influencing the Intel semiconductors. Political : The implementation of new taxes and the internationalism of the products tends to make the company to adhere to strict rules in each country which the company is ventured on. So Intel is focusing upon its new products onto buyers and not on further research and development because of the political pressure around the organisation. Economic: The semiconductor industry is in rise. So, the financial status of the company is rising due to a smaller amount of competitors there is lower amount of threats so the economic factor of the company is in concrete position as of now. Social: The company is present in an ever changing dynamic business environment so it has to be sensitive to changes that occur in the environment and then adapt to the changes that takes place. Technological: The semiconductor industry is ever growing in rapidly increasing speed. So, the technological advancements of the industry must be up to date due to high growth ratio of processors which are used in computers across the globe. The research and development team comes up with new innovative ideas to integrate the previous processing unit into the new one with advanced technology so the computation power increases more than double the time the predecessor microchip used to compute. Legislative: The legal factors are important factors of the company because every country that the company venture into must strictly adhere to that particular countrys rules and regulations. Environment: Being a semiconductor company the company must look after environmental issues which affect the world so the semiconductor devices must be environmentally friendly and recycling of the devices plays a vital role in the environmental factor. The company has a good background of making environmentally friendly chips and recycling units so the environmental issue is under control. (http://ivythesis. typepad. com) 3(d). Porters Five Forces: The porters five forces is a business strategy tool which is used to analyse the position of a company and assessing its strength with respect to the competitors in this case new entrants and their impact in this ever changing environment. The porters five forces are: Existing rivalry among firms Threat of new entrants determinants of supplier power Determinants of buyer power Threat of substitute products Example: AIRBUS The porters five applied to the Airbus aviation company who have been the most influential carriers of all time apart from Boeing. These two major aircraft companies were literally in a fight for gaining the considerable mount of market share. Since the introduction of Airbus A380 the Boeing Company has lost lot of customers. The new entrant in our case the A380 is so much advanced than the legendary Boeing 747 which literally ruled the skies. The Boeing 747 was a fuel efficient and economically well versed passenger and good carrier aircraft but the major flaw in t he Boeing decision making is that it was not concentrating on the future of the aircraft but it produced a wide variant of Boeing 700 series but the cleverly devised strategic plan of Airbus was a nightmare to the Boeing corporation. The A380 has an excellent performance with regardless of its massive size the jumbo jet can people double the time the Boeing 747 used to carry. Since the aviation industry has only fewer concentrations of rivals the market share is huge compared to other industries. So with the new A380, Airbus has a considerable amount of stake in the airline industry. But Boeings answer to A380 is the new 787 dreamliner. Which is more fuel efficient but in the case of size the A380 outsmarts the Boeing. Importance of Change: The change management in an organisation is the most important factor which influences the future of an organisation. It describes an strategic approach in modifying or altering an organizations internal factors such as teams, individuals etc. there are different ways to achieve the change in an organisation by collaborative which is done by providing workshops and seminars explaining about the change to the people working in the organization. Consultative the people are informed about the change and the feedback of the change is taken into consideration. Directive the members of the staff are informed about the details of the change and the sensitivity of the change. Coercive the members are forced to follow the change. Example of Change: The acquisition of Iberia by British Airways The British Airways acquired the Iberia for $7 billion and it made the third largest airline in the world. The member of the staff was quickly adapted to the change in different management team. The Iberia staff members were given a change management session on order to cope up with the new acquisition. The acquisition made the stock holders value to increase and they were given a 55 percent of the new airlines share. 4. Conclusion: We have so far discussed about some of the Strategic planning tools and the ways in which they can be exploited. And in conclusion we can say that the way in which we approach the organisation with the necessary tools and strategic planning will make a gigantic impact on the organisation in the present and in the future. In this ever changing business environment the challenge for each organisation is to identify the needs of the customers and to create an appropriate strategic plan to approach the problem which will provide the optimum results which can benefit the customers as well as the organisation. . References SWOT Analysis, [online], Available http://www. marketingteacher. com/Lessons/lesson_swot. htm PESTLE Analysis, [online], Available http://rapidbi. com/pestle/Introduction-to-the-PESTLE-analysis-tool. html Coca-Cola Case Study, [Online], Available http://www. interbrand. com/best_global_brands. aspx http://finance. mapsofworld. com/brand/value/coca-cola. html Intel case S tudy, [Online], Available http://ivythesis. typepad. com/term_paper_topics/2009/09/intel-case-study. html Read more: http://www. americanessays. com/study-aids/free-essays/management/strategy-and-planning. php#ixzz2OPwRLxoO

Liberal Intergovernmentalism

Liberal Intergovernmentalism What choice for Europe? Reflections on agency and structure in Liberal Intergovernmentalism ABSTRACT This article examines how the relationship between agency and structure is dealt with in Liberal Intergovernmentalism, a prevailing theory of European integration. It demonstrates that, contrary to the widespread view that it is agency-centred, Liberal Intergovernmentalism is in fact a highly structuralist theory in the issue areas it claims to explain best. In these areas integration is ultimately explained in terms of developments in economic structures, leaving no room for agency and ideas. The article also shows that, despite the importance it ascribes to changes in economic structures, Liberal Intergovernmentalism fails to theorise their possible causes. Keywords: Liberal Intergovernmentalism; Moravcsik; Agency; Structure; Integration theory Over the past two decades Andrew Moravcsiks Liberal Intergovernmentalism (LI) has established itself as one of the prevailing theories of European integration. Elegantly combining a liberal theory of preference formation with an intergovernmentalist theory of interstate bargains and a functional theory of institutional choice it explains European integration as the outcome of a series of intergovernmental negotiations. More than any other contemporary theory of integration LI and its application in empirical analyses has provoked discussion in the field of EU studies. Opinions are divided between those who admire LI for its parsimony and predictive power and those who feel that its account of regional integration misses out on too much of importance. Either way, hardly anyone would dispute that it continues to be a theory that it is necessary to relate to in one way or another in theoretically informed work on European integration. The purpose of this article is to critically examine the liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of integration from a meta-theoretical perspective. More precisely, it will be systematically analysed how the relationship between agency and structure is dealt with in LI. Any theorys account of the social world, or delimited parts of it, is based on a particular, albeit often implicit, conceptualisation of the agency-structure relationship and whether or not this conceptualisation is convincing impacts greatly on the quality of the theorys account of social phenomena and change. There is thus much to be learned about a theory, in this case LI, from examining its underlying assumptions with respect to agency and structure. This is even more so because appearances can be deceiving: as it will be argued in this article, LI which appears and is widely assumed to offer an agency-centred account of European integration, turns out to do the opposite on closer scrutiny. In addition to this introduction and a conclusion the article is divided into seven sections. The first two sections set the stage for later analyses by briefly introducing LI and the question of the agency-structure relationship, while also accounting for their respective significance. The following three sections examine how the agency-structure question is dealt with at each of the three stages of LI: preference formation, interstate bargaining and institutional choice. Against this background section six critically examines the liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of European integration before section seven discusses the political implications of LI. 1. Liberal Intergovernmentalism Andrew Moravcsiks Liberal intergovernmentalism (LI) was first presented in the early 1990s and later elaborated and applied in a string of publications of which the monumental book The Choice for Europe (1998) contains the most detailed exposition and test of the theory. LI is presented as a framework for synthesising theories into a coherent account of regional integration. The latter is explained as the result of ‘a series of celebrated intergovernmental bargains (Moravcsik, 1993: 473). More precisely integration is seen as the outcome of a three-stage process where: (1) national interests or goals arise in the context of domestic politics; (2) governments bargain with each other to further their national interest; and (3) governments make an institutional choice to secure credible commitment once a substantive agreement has been reached. LI quickly became a focal point in debates on how to theorise European integration and it has subsequently kept this position. According to Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 67), LI ‘has acquired the status of a â€Å"baseline theory† in the study of regional integration: an essential first cut explanation against which other theories are often compared. In their view, ‘it has achieved this dominant status due to its theoretical soundness, empirical power, and utility as a foundation for synthesis with other explanations (2009: 67). To be sure, not everyone would agree with this latter sentiment. As alluded to in the introduction, several scholars have criticised the theory for painting a too incomplete or even misleading picture of the European integration process and the ‘empirical power of the resulting analyses has often been questioned (e.g. Diez, 1999; Smith, 2000; Wincott, 1995; see also Cini, 2007: 112-14 for an overview of some critiques of LI). In asmuch as relatively few scholars besides Moravcsik appear to wholeheartedly embrace LI (Pollack, 2001; however, cf. Laursen, 2002), it is probably fair to say that it has acquired its status as a â€Å"baseline theory† as much because of its perceived weaknesses as because of its strengths. Similar to Waltzs (1979) neorealism LI is a parsimonious and bold theory that lends itself to accusations of neglecting or underestimating the significance of important parameters in the case of LI for instance transnational business groups and activist supranational institutions. Indeed, LI does this deliberately, seeking ‘to simplify EU politics, stressing the essential and excluding certain secondary activities (Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 68). Hereby it follows the neo-positivist recipe for theory construction, according to which theories should take the form of simplified models that can support efforts to make generalisations by singling out as few variables as possible and account for the causal relations between, and the relative weight of, these variables. Falsifiable hypothesises are derived from such theories and subsequently tested against reliable empirical data. On the basis of such tests, theories can then be further refined or occasionally discarded. (1 ) Testing LI is precisely what Moravcsik sets out to do in The Choice for Europe. Here standardised hypotheses derived from LI and competing (albeit for the most part artificial) theories are tested against an overwhelming amount of empirical data in five cases studies. Needless to say, LI comes out on top as the theory with the by far greatest explanatory power. More generally, The Choice for Europe constitutes an example par excellence of research informed by neo-positivist methods and standards. In its early pages Moravcsik informs his readership that the book ‘eschews ad hoc explanation and seeks instead to discover what is generalizable about EC history (1998: 2) and that it ‘is based on methods which, while far from ideal, generate more rigorous, transparent, objective, and reliable tests of competing theoretical claims about European integration than have heretofore been conducted (1998: 10). The bulk of studies of EC decision-making are criticised for biased data se lection and for relying on ‘citations to secondary sources themselves drawn from journalistic commentary or still other secondary sources (1998: 10). In contrast to this, Moravcsik claims to have backed ‘potentially controversial attribution of motive or strategy †¦ by â€Å"hard† primary sources (direct evidence of decision-making) rather than â€Å"soft† or secondary sources (1998: 10, see also pp. 80-84). (2) 2. Agency and structure The question of how to conceptualise the relationship between agency and structure is arguably one of the most important questions facing social scientists (Archer, 1995: 65). This is due to the importance of agency and structures in the social world and to the fact that it is impossible to offer explanations of events in the social world without appealing to some understanding of their relationship. As mentioned in the introduction there is thus much to be learned about the nature and quality of substantive theories from examining their underlying assumptions with respect to this relationship. Yet the way the latter is dealt with is also important for political reasons, to which we will come back in section 7 below. â€Å"Agency† denotes the ability of agents, whether individuals or groups, to act upon situations and it ‘implies a sense of free will, choice or autonomy that the actor could have behaved differently (Hay, 2002: 94). Agency should thus not be confused wit h concepts like â€Å"individuals†, â€Å"actors† or â€Å"agents†: without anticipating the conclusions of this article too much, a theory can refer to plenty of agents, while not allowing for any agency. â€Å"Structure†, on the other hand, refers to the relational context within which agents operate. Structures define the range of options available to agents. Nowadays the vast majority of scholars agree that both agency and structure matter: phenomena and developments in the social world issue not from either one or the other but are a product of both. If this is the case then it is necessary to break with the two ways of conceptualising the relation between agency and structure that have traditionally been dominant within social theory, namely structuralism and individualism. In their pure versions these positions either picture agents as marionettes (structuralism) or as omnipotent puppet-masters (individualism) (Archer, 1995; XXXXX). However, knowing that both agency and structure matter does not in itself take us far. To make a difference the insight needs to be incorporated into substantive theories and this is by no means an easy task. This contributes to explain why many theories end up offering reductionist explanations of the specific social phenomena they are meant to render intelligible. In the discipline of International Relations (IR) a debate over the â€Å"agent-structure problem† was initiated in the late 1980s by scholars such as Wendt (1987) and Hollis and Smith (1990). Later, and certainly no less interesting contributions to this debate included Doty (1997), Bieler and Morton (2001) and Wight (2006). The debate has done much to clarify and in many cases criticise the ontological and epistemological assumptions underlying mainstream IR theories, particularly Waltzian neorealism (Waltz, 1979). In EU Studies a similar debate has not taken place, and although in particular some constructivist scholars, have taken an interest in the agency-structure relationship (e.g. Wind, 2001), a comprehensive study of the way the most important theories of European integration and governance deal with it has yet to be published. However, it seems to be a widespread view among EU scholars that many of these theories privilege agency over structure. For instance, Risse ( 2004: 161) writes that the ‘prevailing theories of European integration whether neofunctionalism, liberal intergovernmentalism, or â€Å"multi-level governance† are firmly committed to a rationalist ontology which is agency-centred by definition. In a similar vein, other scholars have noticed ‘the ahistorical and structure-blind assumptions underlying intergovernmentalism (Hix, 1994: 9) and observed that in LI ‘agents are, implicitly or explicitly, considered primary actors ultimately determine the shape of overall structures (Christiansen, 1998: 103). In the next sections, the validity of this widespread view will be examined through an analysis of the way the agency-structure relationship is dealt with at each of the three stages in LI. 3. National preference formation The first stage in explaining the outcome of intergovernmental bargains is to account for the national preferences, which are defined as ‘an ordered and weighted set of values placed on future substantive outcomes †¦ that might result from international political interaction (Moravcsik, 1998: 24). This is done by means of a liberal political economy theory of preference formation, according to which national preferences arise in the context of domestic politics, where national government leaders form them on the basis of the preferences and actions of the most important societal groups. Most important among these are domestic producers: ‘The systematic political bias in favor of existing producer groups and against those, notably consumers, taxpayers, third-country producers, and also potential future producers, stems from the formers more intense, certain, and institutionally represented and organized interests (1998: 36). The state is conceptualised as ‘a rep resentative institution constantly subject to capture and recapture by societal groups (Moravcsik, 1997: 518). Because governments have an interest in remaining in office, they need the support from coalitions of domestic actors. The policies pursued by governments are ‘therefore constrained by the underlying identities, interests, and power of individuals and groups †¦ who constantly pressure the central decision makers to pursue politics consistent with their preferences (ibid: 518). In other words, ‘[g]roups articulate preferences; governments aggregate them and it is through this process that ‘the set of national interests or goals that states bring to international negotiations emerges (Moravcsik, 1993: 483). To evaluate the way the agency-structure relationship is dealt with at this stage in LI it is clearly crucial to understand the origins of the preferences of societal groups. Some of the early critics of LI suggested that the theory fails to account adequately for this. For instance, it was pointed out that ‘the origins of such interests are exogenized (Risse-Kappen, 1996: 56) while others claimed that in LI ‘interests are not structurally derived (Caporaso and Keeler, 1995: 44) and even that they ‘emerge mysteriously (McSweeney, 1998: 101). Had it in fact been the case that LI leaves completely open the question of where the preferences of societal groups come from it would have allowed for an agency-centred perspective on preference formation. That is, preferences could have been formed on the basis of all sorts of ideas and individual inclinations. However, this would have seriously undermined the parsimony and explanatory power of the theory and hence it was in fact never left open where preferences come from. As Moravcsik has made clear, LI perceives preferences to be directly caused by structural circumstances, more precisely economic structures: ‘I employ a structural theory of those preferences. My structural approach†¦employs trade flows, competitiveness, inflation rates, and other data to predict what the economic preferences of societal actors and therefore governments should be (Moravcsik, 1999b: 377). In other words, economic preferences are derived from economic structures: societal groups organise and articulate their preferences ‘on the basis of calculations of net expected costs and benefits resulting from the introduction of new policies (Moravcsik, 1993: 489). It follows as a logical implication that ‘shifts in preferences should follow the onset and precede the resolution of shifts or trends in economic circumstances (Moravcsik, 1998: 50). The assumption that economic structures translate directly into specific preferences is made possible by the rationality assumption underpinning LI. The widespread view that LI is agency-centred is related to this assumption that individuals, groups, governments and even states are rational. This begs the question of what â€Å"rationalism† precisely entails, especially as some scholars have suggested that Moravcsik fails to spell this clearly out (Christiansen et al., 2001: 4). In a recent piece Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 68) put it as follows: ‘Rationalism is an individualist or agency assumption. Actors calculate the alternative courses of action and choose the one that maximizes (or satisfies) their utility under the circumstances. Collective outcomes are explained as the result of aggregated individual actions based on efficient pursuit albeit subject to the information at hand and uncertainty about the future. Despite the qualifications at the end of the quote it is clear that whatever this uncertainty pertains to it is not to the consequences of the actions of agents: agents are assumed to be very well-informed about these because, as Moravcsik has put it himself, in ‘a world in which the future consequences of actions are unknown †¦ LI would make little sense (1995: 626). This is an important manifestation, because the more it is assumed that agents know the future consequences of their actions, the more it must also be assumed that they are fully informed about the context in which they currently find themselves. It is quite simply logically inconceivable that an agent can somehow know the future consequences of his or her actions without having perfect or very close to perfect information at hand at the moment of the action itself. Moravcsik is thus significantly underplaying the strength of his rationality assumption when stating that ‘it takes no position on whether states are fully informed, though a framework in which states are assumed to be informed generally performs well (1998: 23). Why not walk the plank? Surely states and other agents can safely be assumed to be blessed full information if it has already been established that no or very few unintended consequences will follow from their actions? At the end of the day the rationality assumption boils down to the view that agents are utility-maximisers with clearly ordered preferences who are (almost?) fully informed, also about the future consequences of actions. However, it should not be concluded from this that LI is an agency-centred theory as the conventional wisdom has it. As we have seen above, preferences are derived from economic structures not just in the weak sense that structures are important in relation to preferences but in the strong sense that they alone dictate preferences (albeit with a minor qualification to which we will return in a moment). Because the rational agents are assumed to be so well-informed their actions become predictable once their structural environment has been mapped. Indeed, only structures matter here inasmuch as ‘[p]references are by definition causally independent of the strategies of other actors (Moravcsik, 1997: 519, see also 1998: 24-25). Moreover, ideas are for the most part not allowed to play any role in relation to preference formation. It is worth dwelling on this for a moment. On one hand, Moravcsik does not hesitate to acknowledge the importance of ideas, as when he proclaims that they ‘are like oxygen or language; it is essentially impossible for humans to function without them (Moravcsik, 2001: 229). On the other hand, ideas do not play a very prominent role in LI, which is also recognized by Moravcsik when he writes that ‘[i]n the LI account of integration, ideas are present but not causally central. They may be irrelevant or random, or, more likely, they are â€Å"transmission belts† for interests (Moravcsik, 2001: 229). The only reason why Moravcsik can correctly maintain that in LI ‘[s]ome national preferences are grounded in ideas (1998: 23) is because some importance is ascribed to the latter in issue areas where the material consequences of policy initiatives are more or less impossible to calculate. For instance, he mentions ‘questions of European institutions and common foreign policy as issues where governments/states will generally not to be under strong pressure from societal groups to pursue particular policies, which creates some room for government leaders to act on the basis of ‘ideologies and personal commitments (Moravcsik, 1993: 494; see also Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 85). According to Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 76), ‘LI best explains policy-making in issue areas where social preferences are relatively certain and well defined. In the core areas, like trade, agriculture and monetary policy, ideas are not assumed to influence preference formation at all. When it comes to ‘insignificant, exceptional and speculative issues like those mentioned above or the Open Method of Coordination (ibid.: 85) where the preferences of societal groups are less clear and strong, and where the explanatory power of LI is thus recognised to be limited, ideas are conveniently allowed to play a role. To recapitulate, in LI no importance is ascribed to ideas in the explanation of what is (correctly) considered to be the ‘substantively important issues (ibid.: 85) in the European integration process: here economic structures do the job alone. (3) 4. International bargains Once the national preferences have been formulated, national decision-makers bring them to the intergovernmental bargaining table. At this second stage LI applies an intergovernmentalist bargaining theory in order to explain the outcome of negotiations. As the primary interest of the governments is to remain in office, they have a clear incentive to defend the national interest in the negotiation. Accordingly, ‘[t]he configuration of domestically determined national preferences defines a â€Å"bargaining space† of potentially viable agreements (Moravcsik, 1993: 496-497). The outcome of a concrete negotiation, however, not only reflects the different national preferences but also the relative bargaining power of different states. Moravcsik defines power in terms of asymmetric interdependence: ‘Bargaining leverage stems most fundamentally from asymmetries in the relative intensity of national preferences, which reflect †¦ the relative costs of agreements to remo ve negative externalities (ibid.: 1993: 499). This means that ‘[t]he power of each government is inversely proportional to the relative value that it places on an agreement (Moravcsik, 1998: 62). How, then, is the agency-structure relationship dealt with at this second stage? Or to put it differently: how much freedom does government leaders have to pursue their own preferences or ideas (agency) and how much are they constrained by their context (structure)? First, the answer to this question depends on the issue area. As mentioned, governments are severely constrained by domestic societal groups in core areas: here they can only act within a narrow â€Å"bargaining space† which limits their freedom considerably. In more marginal (non-economic) issue areas this space widens and government leaders enjoy more freedom to pursue their own agendas. Second, any particular government is constrained by the bargaining spaces of other governments. The nature of these determines the extent to which a government leader is capable of realising national interests. Finally, the outcomes of previous bargains serve as the status quo ‘with respect to which societal actors and gove rnments calculate preferences and alternatives to agreement (Moravcsik, 1995: 612). As mentioned above, the outcome of a concrete bargain reflects the relative bargaining power of each state. As bargaining power is defined in terms of asymmetric interdependence it is, in fact, derived from the very same structures as national preferences. These structures determine how attractive a potential policy is to societal groups and thus governments and consequently they also determine the relative bargaining power. Relative power is thus ultimately decided at the structural level not at the level of agents. This brings us back to the point that was raised in the previous section, namely that the rationality assumption underpinning LI does not serve to render it an agency-centred theory. To be sure, there are plenty of agents in LI, and there is no denying that the theory belongs to the tradition of â€Å"methodological individualism†. But by substituting real agents with ‘calculating machines who always know what they want and are never uncertain about the f uture and even their own stakes and interests (Risse, 2009: 147), LI effectively ends up with no notion of agency at all, at least not in its account of integration in core issue areas. That it is apparently unnecessary to study the interaction between state representatives in order to explain the outcome of a bargain tells it all: the creativity, charisma, persuasiveness and negotiating abilities of particular agents are insignificant in LI. By assuming that agents are identical in the sense of being rational it is possible to derive the outcome of bargains simply by looking at the context in which it takes place. This makes LI a structuralist theory also in its second stage. To be sure, the structuralism of LI differs from conventional structuralism inasmuch as the former retains a focus on agents and their free choices. But the point is that the â€Å"methodological individualism† of LI and other rational choice theories does not entail a genuine notion of agency in that a free choice is neither free nor, indeed, a real choice, if it is always already given by the context in which the agent operates (see also Hay, 2002: 103-104; Tsebelis, 1990: 40). (4) 5. Institutional choice Once governments have reached substantive agreement in a bargain, they set up institutional arrangements in order to secure it. At this third stage LI adopts a functional theory of institutional choice according to which governments pool or delegate authority in order to ‘constrain and control one another (Moravcsik, 1998: 9). Authority is â€Å"pooled† when governments for instance agree to take decisions in an issue area by means of qualified majority voting in the Council, whereas â€Å"delegation† refers to the transfer of authority to more or less autonomous supranational institutions (ibid.: 1998: 67). Pooling and delegation are ‘viewed as solutions to the problem of â€Å"incomplete contracting,† which arises when member governments share broad goals but find it too costly or technically impossible to specify all future contingencies involved in legislating or enforcing those goals (ibid.: 1998: 73). By pooling or delegating, the credibility of the commitment to the substantive agreement that has been reached is enhanced. But by giving up authority in an issue area governments clearly run the risk of being either outvoted by other governments (pooling) or of being overruled by supranational institutions (delegation) in future cases. Hence, ‘[t]he specific level of pooling or delegation reflects a reciprocal cost-benefit analysis: governments renounce unilateral options in order to assure that all governments will coordinate their behavior in particular ways (ibid.: 1998: 75). LI predicts that pooling and delegation will vary across issues and countries. Again, the preferences of societal groups are crucial: ‘Governments transfer sovereignty to commit other governments to accept policies favored by key domestic constituencies (ibid.: 1998: 76). As accounted for above the preferences of societal groups are seen as structurally determined, at least in the core issue area s. In the end the governments institutional choices thus become rather mechanical, following more or less automatically from the circumstances in which they are made. According to LI, international institutions are ‘passive, transaction-cost reducing sets of rules (Moravcsik, 1993: 508) that for instance serve to provide states with information ‘to reduce the states uncertainty about each others future preferences and behaviour (Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 72). Somewhat surprisingly, Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig link the existence of such institutions to â€Å"unanticipated consequences† of actions, proclaiming that LI also assumes the existence of the latter: ‘If unanticipated consequences did not exist, there would be no need for international institutions to elaborate â€Å"incomplete contracts† to begin with. The reason for institutions is precisely to elaborate agreements and credibly lock in compliance against defection by future unsatisfied governments (2009: 75). This, to be sure, is a somewhat unorthodox and problematic use of the concept. When, for instance, historical institutionalists are talking about unintended or unanticipated consequences in the context of European integration, their argument is that supranational institutions and policies tend to develop in ways not originally envisaged and subsequently not approved of by member state governments (Pierson, 1996). Due to â€Å"path dependency† and other mechanisms such institutions and the course of the integration process can become impossible for governments to control. Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig clearly have something altogether different in mind when they talk about unanticipated consequences. In fact, what they are talking about can more accurately be denoted ‘anticipated but undesired outcomes. These arise when rational governments anticipate that there is a risk that other rational governments will not comply with the substantive agreement that has been reached in an intergovernmental bargain. To avoid this undesired outcome governments agree on an institutional arrangement to create certainty. On this view, institutions (being ‘passive, transaction-cost reducing sets of rules) only contribute to minimise uncertainty by eliminating the risk of undesired outcomes (see also Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 72) it is unthinkable that they can develop and behave in ways not intended by governments. At the end of the day, it is not unintended consequences that LI assumes the existence of but rather the ability of governments to ver y accurately predict the consequences of their substantive agreement and on this basis chose the most suitable institutional agreements. This dubious assumption can obviously only be made if it is held, as LI does, that agents are blessed with more or less perfect information, also of future outcomes of their actions (see also Pierson, 2004: 115-XXX). 6. What choice for Europe? ‘the motivations and coalitions underlying national preferences in specific decisions reflected the economic interest of sectors as predicted by their structural position in global markets †¦ any feedback must take the form of changes in economic structures, not ideas (Moravcsik, 1999b: 382) The liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of regional integration ultimately comes down to developments in economic structures and it is therefore logical and appropriate that Moravcsik (1998: 501) refers to it as a ‘structural perspective. Although the concept of â€Å"economic structures† is not defined as clearly as other LI concepts, it basically appears to denote the phenomena that economic indicators are expressions of, examples being trade flows, inflation rates, wealth and competitiveness. The method is thus to use economic indicators as expressions of the economic structures determining the preferences of agents. For instance it reads that ‘Taken together, capital mobility, trade flows, and inflationary convergence provide a prima facie explanation of the progressive shift in national preferences away from, then back toward, exchange-rate cooperation over the two decades following the collapse of the Bretton Woods. This period saw an increase in economic openness and, beginning in the late 1970s, convergence toward low inflation (Moravcsik, 1998: 48) But what caused this and other shifts in economic circumstances? What explains the timing of such shifts? Considering the enormous importance it ascribes to economic structures it would be completely reasonable to expect LI to address and tentatively provide a theoretical answer to such questions. But it doesnt! In all fairness, Moravcsik